The Red Fox in the
Its
Nicholas Paling
The Red Fox in the 
The red
fox (Vulpes vulpes)
is the largest wild predator in the
Red
foxes are generally regarded as a pest for one or more of three reasons: as a predator,
as a nuisance
or as a carrier of disease. In the following section I will be exploring the
reasons why red foxes are regarded as a pest species and the differences
between their perceived pest status and the evidence that they are actually a
pest.
The Red Fox as a Predator
Foxes
have historically been regarded, and still are by many, as a major pest of agricultural
livestock (MacDonald, 1984). They are often held responsible for the
loss of lambs, piglets and poultry to a degree that has a serious economic
impact (McDonald, 1997). To determine whether these accusations are true there
have been many studies performed to assess the perceived levels of fox
predation among the farming community and the economic impact that it has. In
the majority these studies have used a questionnaire approach, in conjunction
with surveys of local fox populations.
In the
early 1970s NOP Market Research performed a survey of 892 farmers in the
A
survey performed in 1986 revealed that 70% of them believed that they had lost
no lambs to foxes, 16% believed they had lost less than five and 14% believed
they had lost more than five that year. Despite this, 80% said that they had no
evidence
that foxes took lambs at all (MacDonald, 1984). In a more recent survey, which
was specifically directed at sheep farmers, perceived fox
predation levels ranged from 0.0008 to 0.26 lambs per ewe with 59% of
respondents reporting that they had lost at least one lamb to a fox in their
most recent lambing (Moberly et al.,
2003). Other studies have reported that between 0.5% and 3% of lambs may be
taken by foxes (Hewson, 1984). The findings of these
surveys, which do not indicate that fox predation is regarded as a serious
threat to agricultural productivity by farmers, are supported by those of the
Ministry for Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF). They estimate that 20% of
newborn lambs die soon after birth (MAFF, 1983) and that of these only 5% die
as a result of ‘misadventure and predation’, which includes dog and fox
predation. MAFF have also stated that around £103 million of gross income is
lost by farmers as result of lamb deaths every year in Britain by means that do
not involve fox predation and concluded that, compared to this, the losses that
do result from fox predation are not therefore significant.
The
predation of foxes on poultry is often perceived to be
where they have the greatest impact on agricultural livestock and is perhaps
the greatest contributory factor to the antipathy of farmers towards the fox.
The reason for this is that foxes, particularly when confronted with a great
many poultry birds, will perform the behaviours of ‘caching’ and ‘surplus
killing’, which involve killing all of the prey available before taking it away
and storing it for later consumption (Wildlife online, 2004). Unfortunately,
these behaviours manifest themselves in a way that is very upsetting for
poultry farmers. However, despite the catastrophic effect of such an attack on
a small poultry flock, fox predation on poultry in the
In comparison to sheep and poultry farming, almost no detailed studies have been undertaken to determine the degree of fox predation on piglets. Fox predation on piglets has been reported and is believed to be increasing as pig farming is increasingly being undertaken outdoors, but it has also been pointed out that there is little evidence that foxes take live piglets and if they do how many (wildlife online, 2004). One report in 1993, commissioned by the Agricultural Economics Unit in Exeter, concluded that the pig farming industry loses £5.3-6.8 million of its profit each year to natural causes compared to only £150,000 to fox predation (only ~3% total losses) (Sheppard, 1993).
◊ ◊ ◊
The
predation of game birds by foxes is a very controversial issue and there is
much contradictory evidence as to the true extent of the problem. Studies have
shown that bird remains were only found in 2.4% of fox scat (droppings) in Saudi
Arabia (Williams et al., 2002) and that in Canada that on only 2% of hunting
trips did foxes target birds (Henry, 1985). However, the intensification of both
agriculture and the shooting industry in the
Wild
populations of game birds are naturally resistant to high levels of predation
(including by foxes) (McDonald et al,.
1997), but intensification of agriculture has resulted in the dramatic
degeneration of our farmland ecosystems in which wild game birds and animals
such as small mammals and insects live. This habitat destruction has led to a
dramatic reduction in the number of wild game birds, an effect that has been
exacerbated by fox predation and further reinforced because, while rodents and
small mammals are usually the most common food of the fox, they will switch to
preying on game birds when these species are reduced in number (Reynolds and Tapper, 1996). The response of the game bird shooting
industry has been to introduce large numbers of hand-reared game birds into the
countryside, but this has actually made the situation worse as foxes thrive on
this readily available food source, which has poor survival skills in the wild.
The magnitude of this problem is highlighted by several studies performed on
the 20 million pheasants released in the
There
are cases where excessive or inappropriate fox predation can have a major
impact on wildlife and particularly on endangered species. As I have
already discussed, fox predation on farmland species that are already
threatened because of the destruction of their habitats can further depress
their numbers and this is also the case for other species, particularly birds,
which reside in other damaged habitats. Three examples of species that have
been studied are the lapwing, the
It
has been shown that lapwing chicks will be only be taken by foxes in an
‘incidental’ manner. However, in areas where the density of ground nesting
seabirds is very high, fox predation is much more of a problem (Seymour et al., 2003). At one Sandwich tern (right)
nesting site on Scolt head Island in Norfolk no
successful breeding was achieved between 1989 and 1991 as a result of fox
predation of tern chicks on the nest (Musgrave, 1993). The field vole also
provides a good example of how increased fox predation could be detrimental to
other species. The field vole population is estimated to grow by between
677,000 and 982,000 each year and the consumption of field voles by predators
is estimated to number 980,000 (Dyczkowski and Yalden, 1998). Of these taken by predators, 85% are thought
to be taken by foxes and feral cats. While increased fox predation may not
necessarily threaten the total field vole population of
◊ ◊
◊
In
urban areas foxes are seen by some as representing a threat to household
pets. There is evidence that occasionally pets such as rabbits and
guinea pigs will be killed by foxes if they are not securely housed (Burns et al., 2000), but the perceptions of
many that foxes kill cats are in the main thought to be false. In a study of
5,000 people in Bristol, Stephen Harris determined that an adult fox will kill
a cat approximately once every six years and in almost every case the cats were
less than six months old (Harris et al.,
1995). It has also been pointed out that in many instances where a fox is seen
with a cat the cat is likely to have been already dead (NFWS, 2004)
The Red Fox as a Carrier of Disease
There
is a widespread perception that foxes carry many diseases and that they may act
as a reservoir from which infectious agents can spread into humans and domestic
animals. In 1995 Baker and MacDonald asked 92 farmers if they thought foxes
should be controlled because they spread disease (Baker and MacDonald, 2000).
30% said that they should and identified 14 diseases of concern to them.
However, almost none of these diseases represented a serious threat to
livestock or human health. Despite these findings, there are some diseases that
do pose hypothetical threats to human and domestic animal health, particularly
in urban areas where there is more potential for foxes to come into contact
with people and their pets.
One
disease that can be transmitted to domestic dogs and which often occurs in fox
populations is sarcoptic mange, a condition
caused by an infestation of the sarcoptic mite (Sarcoptes scabeii)(NFWS,
2004). Mange is not transmissible to humans (or cats), and is easily treated in
dogs, but it can have serious effects on fox populations, particularly in urban
areas where high population densities mean that it spreads quickly (Stone et al., 1972). In
It
is well established that foxes also carry a wide range of parasites which are
potentially transmissible to other species, particularly domestic dogs and
other livestock. In 1995, a study of 843 rural and urban foxes found that 86.8%
of the foxes harboured parasitic helminths (thirteen
different species of helminth worm were found,
including four that have not previously been found in the
Perhaps
the greatest potential threat to human health from foxes is that they are the
natural reservoir for rabies. Although currently
eradicated in the
The Red Fox as a Nuisance
Most
complaints about foxes in urban areas stem from the fact that they are a
nuisance due to their activities primarily at night. In addition to their
piercing calls, they set off security lights, dig in gardens, raid bins, steal
fruit and vegetables, chew garden furniture, leave pungent smelling urine and
excrement in gardens, and have been known to dig up buried pets (Wildlife online,
2004).
The Benefits of Red Foxes
In the
previous sections I have discussed the evidence relating to the red fox as a
pest, but I must point out that there are also benefits of having foxes as a
component of habitats in both rural (Andersson and Erlinge, 1977) and urban areas (Wildlife online, 2004) of
Britain. The best example of this is in the control of rabbits which
were estimated by MAFF to inflict £120 million of damage per year in the 1980s
on crops and forestry, a figure that may have as much as doubled in more recent
years (Mills, 1986). It has been shown that although fox predation alone cannot
bring rabbit numbers under control, once they are low fox predation can keep
their numbers in check (Trout and Tittensor, 1989). In
his report to the hunting inquiry, MacDonald performed a simple calculation and
determined that fox predation on rabbits could save arable farmers between £48
and £608 per fox per year (MacDonald, 2004). Fox predation can also control the
numbers of other potential pest species such as voles and mice on arable land (Hewson and Leitch, 1983) and mice
and rats in urban areas (wildlife online, 2004).
Red Fox Control
It has
been estimated, based on the assumptions that the red fox population of
Current Fox Control Strategies and Their Efficacy
By far
the most widely adopted fox control method is shooting. Three main
techniques are adopted when shooting foxes (reviewed by MacDonald, 2000). Lamping
involves the use of a high powered rifle with a telescopic sight and a powerful
torch. The light is reflected in the eyes of the fox allowing it to be located
and shot. The method of using standing guns involves foxes being
driven from cover by beaters or dogs towards a line of people armed with
shotguns and culling at the cubbing
earth involves driving the foxes and their cubs out of the earth with
terriers and then shooting them with a rifle or shotgun.
Depending on the area of the country, it has been
estimated that between 46% (mid-Wales) and 68% (west-Norfolk) of the total fox
cull in the
The
most widely known and traditional method for culling foxes is hunting
with dogs (reviewed by White, 2000). This can be undertaken with three
breeds of dog: hounds, lurchers or terriers. Lurchers are used principally at night on open ground
and in conjunction with a lamp which is used to locate the fox. Terriers
are used to corner foxes in their dens while the hunters dig them out and then
kill them by shooting or beating. This method is used most commonly to kill
vixens and their cubs during the breading season. Foxhounds drive foxes out
from cover and chase them until they are caught and killed or they go under
ground at which point they are dug out with terriers. Hunting with hounds is
watched by spectators who follow the pack of hounds on horseback or on foot.
It
has been estimated that around 10,000 foxes are killed by lurchers,
50,000 are dug out with terriers and 15,000 killed by foxhunts with hounds each
year (Pye-Smith, 1997). This means that only around
4% of total fox mortalities each year is the result of foxhunts with hounds and
only ~18% are hunted in any way with dogs. The foot and mouth disease epidemic,
which struck the
◊ ◊ ◊
Foxes can be caught in wire snares
placed around a route that foxes are known to take (reviewed by White, 2000).
Snares that do not loosen and which strangle their victim or which catch the
fox around the foot are illegal under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981).
It is also illegal to set them in areas where badgers may be caught under The
Protection of Badgers Act (1992). Snares must be checked everyday by law and
the foxes caught must be dispatched humanely, usually by shooting.
◊ ◊ ◊
Foxes
can be caught by trapping them alive in wire mesh cages that are often used in
conjunction with bait (reviewed by White, 2000). Traps must be checked everyday
and foxes are usually humanely killed by shooting. Traps such as this are
extremely inefficient (Harris, 1985) and are most often used in urban areas.
Other traps which are spring operated and foothold traps are inhumane and are illegal
under the Pests Act (1954).
◊ ◊ ◊
The poisoning
and gassing of foxes is now illegal in the UK, but it is still
considered to be the most effective method of controlling foxes in urban areas
in the event of a rabies outbreak (MAFF, 1988). In light of this, the uptake of
bait by foxes, particularly in urban areas, has been studied in some detail.
However, these studies have demonstrated that lethal doses of poison may not actually
be deliverable using this approach (Trewhella, 1991).
The gassing of rabbits with hydrogen cyanide is still legal in the
The Future of Red Fox Control in the
When
considering the future of red fox control, there are two main issues that need
to be addressed. First, it must be determined whether there is actually a
requirement for fox control to be undertaken and second, what strategy
represents the most appropriate, effective and socially acceptable means of
achieving that control.
The
issue of whether or not foxes actually need to be controlled in the
There
are those who believe that the culling of foxes should be stopped altogether and
that, if this were to occur, the fox population would remain stable as a result
of limitation by factors such as the availability of food and death through
natural causes (Harris et al., 1995).
There are, however, two major problems with is argument. Firstly, a cessation
of culling could have potentially catastrophic short term effects on
sensitive populations of other wild species and on valuable livestock, as huge
numbers of starving foxes search for alternative food sources. Secondly, if the
carrying capacity of a certain habitat is artificially enhanced by the presence
of an additional potential food source, then the fox population will exploit
it, particularly if it easy to obtain. Although this could be a good thing, for
example as a control of rabbits, most often the additional food available will
in some way be of value to people and feeding on it will mean that the fox is regarded
as a pest.
Although
a complete cessation of culling may be impractical, it seems that fox
populations in the
In
1986 Hewson argued that a more targeted and less
indiscriminate culling strategy could be adopted that was, in fact, more
efficacious than the current approach (Hewson, 1986).
He determined that indiscriminately culling foxes, particularly in the winter,
had no effect on the number of breeding dens in the spring, because many of the
foxes killed were sub-dominant vixens that would not have bred the following
spring anyway. He suggests that targeted culling of foxes and their cubs at the
breeding den is far more efficacious at a local level in reducing fox predation
on lambs.
Another
way of reducing the threat of foxes as a pest in both rural and urban areas is
to use improved animal husbandry and non-lethal methods of
control. In agriculture, it has been suggested that changes in the way that
farms are managed represents a far more cost effective means of reducing fox
predation than fox culling (Moberly et al., 2004b). Whether to protect poultry,
piglets, wild birds or domestic pets the use of fox-proof physical barriers such
as fencing
can dramatically reduce fox predation. Of fifty free-range chicken
farms with electric fences in 1993, none reported a single case of fox
predation on their birds (MacDonald et al., 1997). Another electric fence,
erected to protect the breeding sites of Sandwich terns in
Summary
The
use of culling to control red foxes in the
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